Hurricanes are not just brief events. They can create long-lasting effects after the storm has passed. When storm surge and flood waters recede, the moisture they left behind can cause mold, which can affect household air quality. Being aware of this problem is an excellent way to become proactive in testing for air quality issues and removing their sources. Hurricanes may be part of life on the coast, but they are problems you can recover from with the right tools.

What Are Hurricanes?

Hurricanes are storms that develop in the Atlantic Ocean, eastern Pacific Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico between June and November. Often, it takes weeks for these storms to grow and reach land, but sometimes, they can appear and strike within a few days. Because hurricanes can be unpredictable, no matter how skilled forecasters have become, experts recommend you remain vigilant and prepared for a storm throughout the hurricane season.

How Do They Occur?

Hurricanes occur when ocean water warms during the spring, summer and early fall. Warm air just above the water's surface rises. The rising warm air creates a reduction in pressure at the surface, what meteorologists call a low-pressure area. Because nearby air is at a higher pressure, it will flow into the low-pressure zone. But as before, the warmer air rises upward, creating an updraft that also pulls moisture from the warm water up into the atmosphere.

The warm air releases its moisture as it cools during its rise. This moisture creates clouds over the low-pressure area. Once the air has given off its moisture and cooled, it spreads away from the central low-pressure area and sinks back down to the surface to restart the cycle. Over time, the added moisture builds bigger and bigger clouds, and the low-pressure area gets larger and stronger. The storm will begin to rotate, and a tropical storm forms once the winds inside measure at least 39 miles per hour. This level is the early stage of rotation a storm must reach before progressing onto hurricane status.

Hurricanes form as tropical storms continue to spin and grow. This growth occurs over warm ocean waters, and if the storm crosses land, it weakens because it loses its source of energy in the ocean. A storm becomes a hurricane based on the wind speeds of the storm. There are five categories of hurricane severity, based on the Saffir-Simpson scale.

• Category 1: A Category 1 hurricane will have the lowest windspeeds allowed for a hurricane, 74 to 95 miles per hour. These strong winds produce damage such as downed power lines and fallen tree branches. Most well-built homes will only suffer external damage, though.

• Category 2: With winds measuring from 96 to 110 miles per hour, Category 2 storms are dangerous enough to cause extensive damage. Widespread power loss, uprooted trees and significant roof damage of homes are likely to occur.

• Category 3: Category 3 is the first of the major storm types. These hurricanes have sustained winds measuring from 111 to 129 miles per hour. Damages likely will include numerous road blockages from uprooted trees and water and power outages lasting for weeks.

• Category 4: Hurricane Maria, which devastated Puerto Rico, was a Category 4 storm. The winds in a Category 4 storm measure between 130 and 156 miles per hour. These storms create catastrophic losses. Homes often lose roofs and walls, and power outages can last months. Some places may become uninhabitable for weeks after the storm.

• Category 5: Currently, the highest hurricane classification is Category 5, which is a storm with winds greater than 157 miles per hour. Hurricanes of this category cause widespread home destruction, and downed trees can isolate areas from emergency crews. For major storms, evacuating the region could save your life.

While the Saffir-Simpson scale indicates predicted damages from storms of specific categories, some more recent hurricanes have proven to be more damaging than predicted. For instance, Hurricane Harvey, while downgraded to a Category 3 storm after its initial landfall, caused devastating, widespread flooding throughout southeast Texas. The storm category could not prepare residents for the rain and flooding that followed.

Because wind speed is not the only factor influencing the amount of damage a storm may cause, some argue for adding more categories or using other parameters to make the current scale more accurate. Dr. Greg Postel, a hurricane specialist with The Weather Channel, said of the Saffir-Simpson scale that it's "not the most useful way to look at [storm] impacts." Windspeeds cannot predict flooding risks, and storm surge may venture outside predicted levels. While the Saffir-Simpson scale is not going away, it's critical for those living in hurricane-prone areas to look at all factors of the storm during preparations.

Environmental Effects of a Hurricane

Hurricanes have a dramatic effect on the environment. From changing shorelines to impacting the air, hurricanes can affect more than just manmade structures.

Storm surge and the barrage of waves against the shore cause erosion of coastlines. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew, a category four storm, completely defoliated the northern Florida Keys. Later, when the storm struck Louisiana, it took 70 percent of the sand from the barrier islands. The sand removed from the barrier islands covered 80 percent of the oyster beds behind the islands. These environmental changes devastated the local flora and fauna. In Florida, old-growth mangrove forests died from the damage, and in Louisiana, the loss of dunes along the shore took the homes of many animals in the area.

Flood waters from hurricanes are problematic in their ability to trigger air pollution from damage to refineries and other industrial complexes. After Hurricane Harvey, refineries and petrochemical plants in the area released 8.3 million pounds of pollution into the atmosphere. Just days after the storm, pollutants contributed to three days in a row with high ozone levels, including the worst day in the state for smog levels, Sept. 1, 2017.

Pollution is not just a problem for Texas. Air pollution after a hurricane is a problem everywhere storms strike. For flooded homes, mold can develop, creating indoor air pollution. If you live in a hurricane-prone area, you need to prepare for the effects a storm can have on air pollution in your area.

Tips to Protect Your Home Against Flooding

Flooding from storm surges can happen in areas directly along the coast, but even if you live inland, you still have to ready your home for the chance of flooding from rising rivers or rainfall. It wasn't a storm surge, but the latter two causes created the devastation of Hurricane Harvey in 2017.

Sadly, many people don't have adequate flood insurance. In Florida, only 42 percent of homes in coastal counties had flood insurance, and only 41 percent of those living in flood-hazard areas had flood insurance. Flood insurance is one way to protect your home and contents from flooding. It's not just the loss of materials when your home floods. You will need extensive work to mitigate mold growth and restore the home to a livable condition. A typical homeowner's insurance policy will not cover flooding, which is why a separate policy is so important.

Understanding the categories of flood warnings is vital for knowing what type of action to take. From watches to warnings, here are the kinds of events you may hear about on the news.

• Flood watch: A flood watch means flooding is predicted, but not guaranteed, for your area. Conduct last-minute preparations to get your home and possessions ready for a flood.

• Flood warning: The weather service announces flood warnings when flooding is imminent or actively occurring. If you need to evacuate, do so when the warning is announced, if you can.

• Flash flood watch: Flash flood watches give you notice of possibly dangerous flash flooding, which occurs when waters rise rapidly.

• Flash flood warning: Like a flood warning, a flash flood warning means your area already is experiencing a flash flood or is about to.

Catalog all your essential possessions by taking photographs. These pictures will document what you had before the flood, making filling out an insurance claim easier.

If you have the funds and live in a flood-prone area, consider raising your home above flood level. You could remain high and dry when waters rise. Though it's a pricey option, this will save you from costly repairs in the future, especially if your home has flooded in the past. If you have a basement, verify your sump pump is in working condition and install a water alarm to alert you if your basement begins to fill with water. Make sure all drains and gutters are cleared of debris. Blocked drains can worsen flooding by causing water to back up onto your property.

Should you have to evacuate, move all your possessions to the highest place possible in your home to protect them if your house floods. Ideally, you should move things to an upper story if possible, but at least get everything off the floor. Store valuables in waterproof containers in safe locations.

If you live in an area with an evacuation order, leave as soon as possible to avoid getting trapped in your home. Turn off the gas and electricity when you leave. Take any necessities with you, such as spare clothes, prescriptions and backup batteries for your phones.

Before a flood emergency, whether from local storms or a hurricane, decide on a contact person and location for your family. Arrange to meet at the location or get word to the contact that you are safe. This arrangement will help you know your loved ones are safe even if the flooding prevents you from reaching each other. Move pets to a higher level of your home, or take them with you when you evacuate.

While you cannot move your home when flooding threatens, you can prevent damage to your valuables and protect your family.

How to Prepare for a Hurricane

Part of hurricane preparation includes preparing for the flooding that accompanies the storms, but you'll also need to ready your home for the wind damage. Board up your windows with plywood. Tape will not prevent the glass from breaking. Move any mobile objects you keep outside inside, including furnishings and trash cans. If you stay at home, have enough food, water, and prescriptions for everyone to last at least two weeks. After the storm passes, you will need to begin cleanup.

Post-Hurricane Hazards to Avoid

After the hurricane, the danger is not yet over. Fallen trees and downed power lines pose threats outside the home, but you also have a hazard inside if your home got water in it. Whether flood waters rose into your house or if a hole in the roof admitted rainwater, you need to remove everything that got wet and throw it away. Then, you'll need to test the air for signs of mold growth.

Mold Damage From Hurricane Flooding

The effects of hurricane flooding on a home include water seeping inside and soaking the walls and carpets. Because these components of your house are not designed to dry quickly, they are prime breeding grounds for mold and mildew. When removing wet materials from your home, you'll need to remember to pull out sheetrock at least to a point 12 inches above where the water reached. Though higher parts of the sheetrock may not have gotten wet, they could still draw moisture up from lower on the wall and grow mold.

Even if your home did not flood, excessive moisture from nearby flood waters could still have gotten into your home. To protect your family from mold growth, you'll need to test the air quality in your home as part of your post-hurricane cleanup.

How to Test for Mold After a Hurricane

Does hurricane flooding cause mold? In many cases, the answer is yes. However, because moisture from a hurricane can seep deeply into your home's interior, you may not immediately see the source of the mold. You can still test for mold's presence in your home, though, with an air sample test. One of the most convenient and tried methods of detecting mold is the use of a spore trap. A volume of air is drawn through the cassette and mold spores are captured on the collection media. A laboratory will analyze and count the numbers and different species of mold spores on the collection media. The samples of the indoor test should be compared to the results of an outdoor sample. The Zefon Air-O-Cell is considered the gold standard of spore traps.

To complete an air sampling test, you need a pump that has the ability to pull 15 liters of air per minute. Our Zefon Z-Lite is compatible both with spore traps and carpet sampling. The Zefon Bio-Pump is an Air-O-Cell specific pump that is portable, and battery operated. You will also need the sampling cassettes for use with a pump, like the Air-O-Cell cassette, which are the parts that collect the samples. You send the cassettes to the lab after you've collected the data. Some states and insurance companies require testing to be performed by certified professions.

Air Sampling Equipment for Mold Analysis

To help you assess the risk of mold damage from flooding, we have a wide range of equipment. You can choose from complete mold sampling kits. All kits come with a pump and cassettes, but the deluxe and ultimate also include slides and mold swabs for collecting physical samples of mold.

For information about how to remove the contamination once you've discovered you have mold, we have a book that guides you through the process. The Fungal Contamination book is exceptionally detailed. It's a textbook for many mold remediation courses. This is the expert's tool for restoring a home from mold problems.

These are just some of the air sampling products we have. Not only can you find disposable samplers to help with detecting mold after flooding, but you can also get cassettes and other equipment to test for metals, asbestos and more.

Zefon's Air Sampling Equipment for Mold

Let us lend you a hand in finding the best equipment for detecting mold after flooding. Even long after the hurricane season has ended, floods can still happen, and your home can still get water inside it. Air quality tests aren't just for the hurricane season. Use them all year long to monitor the quality of the air in your home. Getting rid of mold makes your home a healthier place to live in while upholding the property's value. It's time to find and rid your home of mold contamination.

The first step to banishing mold is to identify the problem. At Zefon, we are an industry leader in air sampling, and we offer all the equipment you need to test for mold and other impurities or air contaminants. If you can't decide, check out our product line or sign up for our newsletter to learn more. We also appreciate the chance to assist you. Contact one of our experts to help you choose the right sampling gear for testing.

In the U.S., 37-mm cassettes are commonly used to collect aerosol samples. When collecting an aerosol sample, it's often the case that some of the material gathers on the wall of the cassette, rather than making its way to the filter. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) expects all particles that make their way into the sampler to be included in the measurement and analysis of the sample. That includes particles that find their way to the filter and particles that end up on the wall of the sampler.

Wall loss can disrupt the accuracy of the results from a sample, as it's possible that a considerable amount of the sample will end up on the sides of the cassette, rather than in the filter itself. Fortunately, there are ways to account for air sampling cassette wall losses.

What Are Air Sampling Wall Losses?

During air sampling, a specific volume of air is collected, and the amount of a particular contaminant is measured in that volume of air. The goal of air sampling is to evaluate how much of a particular contaminant is in an environment and to assess how safe the atmosphere is for workers and others who will be exposed to the air.

Although there are multiple methods of collecting an air sample, one of the most commonly used processes involves pumping air through a filter at a specified rate. The flow rate lets you compare the volume of air sampled to the volume of any collected particles or contaminants.

In a perfect world, all of the particles being evaluated would travel to the filter of the air sampler, where they can be collected and analyzed. What often occurs is something known as wall loss.

Wall loss refers to the collection of particles on the inner surface of an air sampler cassette, rather than in the filter itself. One of the challenges of wall loss is that all of the particles collected during air sampling must be accounted for when the sample is analyzed and measured. If the particles that accumulate on the walls of the cassette aren't included in the sample itself, then the results won't give you an accurate idea of the level of contamination or the volume of particles in the air.

How Sampling Wall Loss Occurs in Cassettes

Wall loss can occur in cassettes as several points during the air sampling process. It can happen when the sample is being taken, after collection, when the sample is being transported from the collection site to the laboratory and when the sampler is handled by the technician who is analyzing it.

Among the causes of wall loss are:

• Gravity
• Particles "bouncing" from the filter to the inner walls of the cassettes
• Particles settling on the wall rather than in the filter
• Electrostatic attraction
• Motions on the interior of the sampler
• Movement of the sampler during shipping
• Movement of the filter and sampler when a technician takes the cassette apart for testing

Wall loss might not seem like a significant issue, but multiple studies have shown that the volume of particles that can end up on the walls of a cassette can often be considerably higher than the number of particles that makes it into the filter. The studies have also demonstrated that there is considerable variation in the amount of dust and particles that collect on the walls of a cassette — anywhere from two percent to 100 percent.

Although gravity, movement and electrostatic can all interfere with the distribution of particles in an air sampler, those same forces are not likely to interfere when a person is breathing in the air that needs to be sampled. Since it is expected that a human would breathe in all the particles found in a given area, all of the particles collected during a sampling session need to be evaluated, whether they make it to the filter or collect on the walls of the cassette.

Average Industry Sample Loss for Each Contaminant Type

The average amount of sample loss varies considerably based on the type of contaminant and the location or work environment.

The maximum amount of wall deposits of lead from samples taken at copper smelting facilities was 55 percent. The median wall loss from those facilities was 21 percent.

Meanwhile, the maximum wall loss of a lead sample from a lead ore mill was 35 percent, and the median sample loss was 19 percent. A solder manufacturer had maximum wall deposits of 74 percent while the median rate was 29 percent. A facility that produces batteries had maximum wall deposits of 66 percent and median wall deposits of 28 percent.

Lead isn't the only particulate that air sampling tests for. Another potentially dangerous particulate is hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)). Cr(VI) is often used in plastics, inks, paints, and dyes as a pigment. Workers who perform "hot" tasks such as welding can be exposed to Cr(Vi) when they work with metals that contain chromium. More than half a million workers in the US can be exposed to Cr(VI) while going about their daily tasks.

Average wall loss of Cr(VI) depends on the activity. Welding activities have the highest maximum wall deposit rate, at 55 percent. The median rate for welding environments is five percent. The variation between maximum and median wall loss deposits is much smaller for paint spraying environments, where the maximum is 12 percent and the median is seven percent, and for electroplating environments, where the maximum is 17 percent and the median is 12 percent.

Sample loss rates for other contaminants include:

• Zinc (zinc foundry): Max wall deposits: 62 percent, Median wall deposits: 53 percent
• Zinc (zinc plating): Max wall deposits: 91 percent, Median wall deposits: 27 percent
• Iron dust (cast iron foundry): Max wall deposits: 46 percent, Median wall deposits: 22 percent
• Iron dust (grey iron foundry): Max wall deposits: 77 percent, Median wall deposits: 24 percent
• Copper dust (Cuproberyllium foundry): Max wall deposits: 40 percent, Median wall deposits: 31 percent
• Beryllium dust (Cuproberyllium foundry): Max wall deposits: 39 percent, Median wall deposits: 12 percent

The Importance of Accounting for Wall Loss

When collecting an air sample, accuracy is critical. If you don't use the right flow rate or the same flow rate each time, it can be difficult, if not impossible, to get an accurate idea of how much of a particular contaminant is in an area and what a worker's risk of exposure to that contaminant is. Without a precise sample, there is no telling whether or not the air contains more than the recommended amount of particulates and whether or not workers are exceeding the recommended exposure limits during their shifts.

If you collect a sample from the air to test the amount of lead dust, and 40 percent of the lead dust taken from a given area ends up on the wall of the cassette, and there's no accounting for the cassette wall deposit, you aren't getting an accurate reading. Without an awareness of how much of a specific particulate or another contaminant — such as vapor — is in the air, workers may be exposed to dangerous levels of dust and other harmful substances.

Aside from protecting employees, there are other reasons to properly account for sampling loss. At this point, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), NIOSH, ASTM International and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) all have either voluntary or mandatory standards that stipulate that wall deposits need to be accounted for during the sampling and analysis of air.

How to Account for Sampling Wall Losses

There are several ways to account for wall deposits and to include the volume of those deposits in your analysis when air sampling. The methods vary and include practicing certain techniques when collecting the sample or using a specific type of cassette. Techniques that can potentially account for wall deposits include:

• Wiping the interior of the cassette
• Rinsing the cassette
• Removing the sample directly inside of the cassette
• Using a "self-contained" filter in the cassette

Although some techniques will add some or all of the wall deposits to the analyzed sample, they are far from "perfect" solutions to the problem. Several studies have reported that rinsing the walls of a cassette was an "inadequate" method of removing the wall deposits. Wiping the walls of the cassette is somewhat preferable, but still runs the risk of not fully collecting all of the deposits from the wall and might require multiple passes to collect enough of the deposit.

One study focused on the difference between wiping and rinsing the walls of a cassette to recover lead deposits. The researchers collected 54 samples at a lead processing and smelting plant. The samples were located at three separate locations at the plant and had an average sampling time of 460 minutes. The experiment lasted three days. Half of the samples were first rinsed, then wiped after collection and the other half were only wiped.

For both groups, an average of 74 percent of the lead was found in the filter of the cassettes. For the wipe-only group, an average of 21 percent of the lead was collected in the first wipe. For the rinse-then-wipe group, an average of 23 percent of the lead was collected by the rinse followed by the wipe.

How to Prevent Sampling Wall Loss

In some cases, it might be possible to prevent wall losses in sampling cassettes. One way to prevent sample loss is to design a cassette that eliminates the likelihood of deposits collecting on the inner wall of the sampler.

There are several ways to design a cassette that minimizes or eliminates wall loss. One option is to create a cassette that is conductive, which means that the amount of static electricity will be reduced. Conductive samplers tend to have considerably lower rates of loss compared to non-conductive samplers or samplers with low conductivity.

The shape of the cassette can also help to prevent sampling wall loss. For example, a cassette with smooth surfaces and a round shape is less likely to produce eddies and less likely to have loss compared to a sampler with corners. The size of the filter area can also significantly reduce or even prevent wall loss. A smaller overall filtration area means that there is a lower chance of particles ending up on the wall next to the filter, rather than on the filter itself.

All in all, using a cassette made from a conductive material, with a round, smooth shape and a small filtration area, helped to reduce wall losses significantly. A cassette with those three features had wall loss of around five percent, compared to cassettes without those features, which had wall losses as high as 30 percent.

Another way to significantly reduce or even prevent wall loss is to use a cassette with a self-contained filter capsule. The filter and cartridge are all one unit, so there is no "wall" for the particulate to collect on. Any material collected in the capsule is analyzed, providing an accurate idea of the volume and concentration of a particular substance in the air.

Why Zefon Air Sampling Equipment Is Best for Reducing Wall Loss

During air sampling and analysis, it's essential that you evaluate the full sample. The Zefon Solu-Sert™ filter is a self-contained capsule that allows you to collect and analyze all the particles in a given area. The capsule is made up of a mixed cellulose ester (MCE) filter surrounded by a cellulose shell. The shell and filter capsule are placed into a Zefon filter cassette, along with a support pad.

Once a sample has been collected, the entire capsule is taken out of the cassette and sent for analysis. There's no need to remove the filter, then wipe down the walls of the cassette or rinse the cassette. Everything you've collected during the sampling period is contained within the capsule.

Analyzing the capsule involves placing it in an acid solution. The acid dissolves the cellulose, leaving the particulates behind to be measured.

Using a self-contained filter capsule offers multiple benefits when air sampling. For one thing, the capsule is likely to almost eliminate the risk of wall loss. A self-contained filter capsule is one of the methods recommended by the NIOSH for accounting for wall deposits. The filter can be used to analyze the following particulates:

• Aluminum
• Arsenic
• Barium
• Beryllium
• Cadmium
• Chromium
• Cobalt
• Copper
• Lead
• Tungsten
• Zinc
• Elements 7300, 7301, 7303

The Solu-Sert™ filter can also be a considerable time saver when it comes to assessing samples. Instead of having to rinse the walls of the cassette or wipe them down, then analyze the contents of the wipe, all a technician needs to do is analyze the contents of the capsule.

The materials used to create the filter also help to improve its accuracy. The filter capsule has a lightweight shell, which means that it produces lower background levels. Usually, the capsules exhibit background levels at or below detectable levels for 25 elements. When using a gravimetric analysis, or pre and post weighing of the filter, the Zefon Gravi-Sert™ is a PVC filter with a PVC capsule. The PVC material allows for better weight stability. Like the Solu-Sert™, the entire sample is collected within the capsule, thus providing the most accurate exposure levels.

When sampling for the inhalable particle fraction, the Zefon Disposable Inhalable Sampler (DIS) is the best choice for accounting for wall deposits. There are several variations of the sampler including cellulose for metals and PVC for gravimetric.

Accounting for wall deposits is crucial when collecting and measuring air samples. Although you have several options when it comes to accounting for wall loss, not all of those options are equal. The Solu-Sert™ filter offers the most accurate results and the greatest ease of use. To learn more about the Solu-Sert™, Gravi-Sert™ and DIS filter capsules and other air sampling products from Zefon, connect with a sales rep or locate a dealer near you today.

Despite what the adage claims, what people can't see can harm them. Outdoor and indoor air can be full of dust particles, gases or vapors can contribute to issues such as lung disease. When a person inhales something that is potentially harmful to their health, the process is known as inhalation exposure.

Inhalation exposure can lead to chronic and potentially life-threatening illnesses. In the U.S., at least 15 percent of new asthma cases diagnosed in adults are the result of occupational exposure to inhaled particles and substances. Exposure to dust such as coal dust, asbestos, and silica dust on the job can lead to a condition known as pneumoconiosis. Symptoms of pneumoconiosis include shortness of breath, coughing, and low blood oxygen levels.

Occupational lung diseases can develop as a result of repeated, long-term exposure or following a single exposure to a high volume of a particular agent. Avoiding the particulates that contribute to lung diseases can prevent them from developing in the first place. Minimizing exposure can also help to reduce the risk of illness and reverse conditions such as asthma.

Testing the air in a work setting or other environment allows a worker to know types of particulate that are in the air. Disposable and reusable inhalable air samplers provide a way to test the air.

What Is an Inhalable Air Sampler?

An inhalable air sampler is a filter that is attached to a sampling head. The goal of an inhalable air sampler is to measure the dust, aerosols, and particulates a worker might be exposed to while on the job. The Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), located in Scotland, developed a sampling head in the 1980s. The sampling head was designed to collect in the inhalable particle fraction or the mass fraction of total airborne particles which is inhaled through the nose or mouth. The inhalable air samplers developed and sold by Zefon International are based on the same design and replicate the features and collection efficiency of the samplers created by the IOM. Zefon air samplers are meant to be interchangeable with IOM samplers.

Inhalable air samplers are worn by the people using them. The sampling head clips to the front of a person's shirt, in the "breathing zone."

The inhalable sampler is attached to a personal pump by a length of flexible hose. Before the air sampler can be used, it needs to be calibrated, so that it takes in the appropriate volume of air per minute.

IOM inhalable air samplers have a recommended flow rate of two liters per minute (2 L/min) when used for personal sampling.

Components and Application of Inhalable Air Samplers

The inhalable sampler is made up of several parts, which differ based on whether the air sampler is reusable or disposable. Three components all inhalable air samplers have in common is the sampling head, cassette (top and bottom) and filter. The cassette contains a filter and is inserted to the sampling head.. A cap is put into place over the cassette inlet to keep unwanted debris from entering the cassette and getting onto the filter while in transport. The inhalable sampler also includes O-rings to make it leak-free.

Disposable inhalable air samplers include a pre-assembled cassette that has the filter sealed to it. The cassette, or now the filter capsule, rests on top of a cellulose pad. Both the pad and the filter capsule fit securely inside of the sampling head, which connects to the flexible tubing or hose.

An O-ring rests on top of the filter capsule, then the inlet is pressed and snapped in place. When the sampler is in storage or not in use, an inlet cap should be placed on the inlet to keep dust and particulates from getting into the filter.

The components found in reusable inhalable air samplers are slightly different, as the samplers are designed to be cleaned and used over and over again. Instead of a pre-assembled cassette or filter capsule, the sampling head is inserted with a cassette that is assembled just before sampling.

The cassette is made of two parts — the bottom, also known as the support grid, and the top, sometimes called the cassette front. When assembled, a filter is sandwiched between the bottom section and the top section of the cassette.

In some instances, the cassette might be preloaded brought to the site of testing in a transport clip. The clip slides on and off of the cassette and is meant to identify the cassette when it is sent to the laboratory for testing. The cassette will also most likely have a rubber cap that attaches to the front. The cap seals off the cartridge, keeping air away from the filter when it is not actively sampling.

Although the components found in disposable and reusable inhalable air samplers are slightly different, the method of using them and the process of calibrating them is the same.

To calibrate an inhalable air sampler, you use a calibration adapter. To set up the device, you place the air sampler into the adapter, securing it in place with the thumbscrew. Next, you connect an outlet port on the sampler to the corresponding fitting on the pump, using some flexible tubing. Another length of tubing is connected to the barb on the adapter and the corresponding outlet on the calibrator.

To start the process of calibrating, turn on the pump. Adjust the air flow of the pump until you get the desired reading on the calibrator. Usually, the desired flow rate is 2 L/min when using an inhalable air sampler.

The various applications for an inhalable air sampler include:

• ISO/CEN for bioaerosols
• NIOSH Method 5700 for particulate formaldehyde
• British Method MDHS 14/4 for sampling and gravimetric analysis of respirable, inhalable and thoracic aerosols
• British Method MDHS 14/3 for inhalable dust
• British Method MDHS 25/3 for organic isocyanates
• British Method MDHS 6/3 for lead
• ACGIH definition of inhalable particulate matter
• Australian standard for inhalable particulate

Contaminants Inhalable Air Samplers Can Detect

Air can contain one or more of three different types of contaminant. Those contaminants are:

• Vapors
• Gases
• Particulates

Vapors are gases that are condensable, meaning they are usually liquids or solids at room temperature and under normal pressure. When they are heated or when the pressure around them changes, they turn into gas. Gases don't condensate, meaning they remain in their gaseous form at room temperature. In the air, vapors that can be a cause for concern include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), mercury and some pesticides.

Although there are other methods of detecting vapor or gas contamination, inhalable air samplers exclusively measure the third type of contaminant, particulates. Particulates are tiny solid or liquid matter suspended in the air. Some particulates are big enough to see while others are so small they can only be viewed under an electron microscope.

The Environmental Protection Agency divides particulate matter (PM) into two categories based on size — PM₁₀ and PM_2.5. PM₁₀ particles usually have a diameter under 10 micrometers (1 micrometer is 1/1000 of a millimeter). PM_2.5 particles have a diameter under 2.5 micrometers.

Particulate matter not only differs when it comes to size. There are also considerable differences in the source of the material and how it is composed. What all types of particulate matter have in common is that exposure to the particles can cause significant health issues.

Inhalable air samplers can measure and detect five types of particulate matter:

• Mists: Mists are typically a collection of liquid droplets in the air. Usually, mist is visible to the human eye.
• Aerosols: Aerosols are tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in a gas.
• Fumes: When a solid material is heated until it turns into a gas, then cooled again, it can produce fumes.
• Smoke: Smoke particles develop when something does not thoroughly burn or combust. Usually, smoke is made of carbon particles.
• Dust: Dust is made up of small particles that are suspended in the air temporarily. Dust comes from a variety of sources, including dirt, wood and human skin. Sanding wood, tracking dirt in from outdoors or exfoliating the skin are all factors that can contribute to dust.

Types of Inhalable Air Samplers

The two main types of inhalable air samplers are disposable air samplers and reusable air samplers. With a reusable sampler, you can reuse the cassette repeatedly. Between uses, it's essential to clean the components of the air sampler so to avoid cross-contamination.

There are two ways to clean a reusable air sampler. After taking the sampler apart, you can clean the pieces with a solvent such as rubbing alcohol, then dry it with a lint-free cloth. The second option is to take apart the sampler and place the components in an ultrasonic cleaning device that uses soap and water.

With a disposable air sampler, each cassette is designed for one-time use, eliminating the need for cleaning.

Should you use a disposable or a reusable inhalable air sampler? Each option has its benefits as well as drawbacks. Whether the benefits of a disposable inhalable sampler outweigh the benefits of a reusable inhalable sampler comes down to your preferences and opinion.

Pros: Why Buy a Disposable Inhalable Air Sampler

Compared to a reloadable sampler, a disposable model offers a few benefits.

One primary benefit of a disposable inhalable air sampler is that the cassettes are pre-loaded. Not only does that save you time, as you don't have to put the pieces together yourself, it can also reduce the chance for error or contamination. When you assemble a cassette, it's essential that you do so in a clean environment while wearing gloves. If you neglect to put on a pair of clean gloves or if the area you are working in isn't entirely clean, contaminants can get on the filter or cassette, interfering with the effectiveness of the sampler. Reversely, the user reduces the chance of contamination after sampling is complete. These is no disassembly of the sampler. Simply put the inlet cap back into the transport position.

Disposable samplers also weigh less than reusable models, which means that you are likely to get more sensitive results and improved accuracy.

For metals testing, the entire filter capsule can be digested. This accounts for wall deposits and gives accurate exposure readings. The reusable sampler requires wiping the interior walls of the cassette to get an accurate result.

Cons: Why You Might Not Buy a Disposable Inhalable Air Sampler

If you are taking thousands of samples per year and have the expertise of proper handling and controls, a reusable sampler could be a better option.

Pros: Why Buy a Reusable Inhalable Air Sampler

Perhaps the most significant benefit of a reusable inhalable air sampler is that you can reuse it. Depending on your sampling needs, being able to reuse the sampler itself can save time and money, as you can pre-assemble cassettes and swap them out as needed after testing the air. If you are going to reuse the sampler body with multiple cassettes, it is important to remember to wear clean gloves when handling the cassettes and to don a new pair of gloves before handling each one.

Cons: Why You Might Not Buy a Reusable Inhalable Air Sampler

One drawback of using reusable air samplers is that they do require a bit more care and attention compared to their disposable counterparts. For example, the cassettes that you use with a reusable sampler typically come with a transport clip. It's essential that you not lose the clip. Otherwise, there won't be a way for you to send the cassette to the lab for testing.

If the clip has a barcode on it, it's vital that you match up the correct cassette with the right clip when shipping your cassettes off for testing. If the clips get mixed up, the results you get might be inaccurate.

Since you need to assemble the cassettes yourself, there's a slight chance that a mistake will occur and the wrong cassette front will be matched to the wrong filter or back. While you can avoid assembly mistakes by exercising caution, there is still the risk of error, which is eliminated with the pre-assembled cassettes that come with a disposable sampler.

There is also the cost and care involved in cleaning. A technician that does not use proper care and technique while decontaminating can leave particulate in the cassette. This will give inaccurate exposure levels during analysis. There is expense involved with proper cleaning.

Why Buy Zefon Inhalable Air Samplers

Zefon International offers both disposable and reusable inhalable air samplers. Our samplers are replicas of the ones developed by the Institute of Occupational Medicine in Scotland. Our reusable air samplers are interchangeable with the ones produced by IOM while our disposable models are developed with similar criteria. The critical difference is that our disposable samplers aren't designed for reuse.

We stand behind our inhalable air samplers and promise that they will be free of defects and ready to provide you with accurate samples anytime you need them.

The Zefon International Air Equipment Difference

Whether you are in the market for a reusable air sampler, a disposable air sampler or are considering both, Zefon International aims to meet your need. We pride ourselves on being different from the rest and on making sure our customers have the best possible experience, both when interacting with us and when using our products.

We offer the largest selection of air sampling products so you can find the tool you need in our catalog. We also aim to offer our products at the best possible price to our customers, which means you not only get an air sampler you can depend on, you get one at a price that works with your budget.

Finally, we put customer service first. Should you have a question about a product or need assistance choosing the right air sampling equipment, we're here to help.

Browse our product catalog and discover the Zefon International Air Equipment difference for yourself today.

Across the United States, approximately 73,200 wildfires burn over 6.9 million acres every year.

As of November 30, 2018, 52,303 wildfires have blazed over 8.54 million acres, and more are reported every day — from California to Maine, the number of wildfires appears to increase every year. Thanks to the tireless efforts of firefighters and emergency responders, most wildfires are quickly controlled. But what are their long-term impacts on our environment, including our air quality?

Wildfires are a natural occurrence, and they provide many benefits for an ecosystem. However, they also come with a list of negative impacts, including damaging the quality of your air.

How and Where Wildfires Occur

Also called a forest fire, vegetation fire, grass fire, peat fire or a hill fire, wildfires are a common occurrence in many areas of the country.

Not every fire is considered a wildfire. According to the National Wildlife Coordinating Group, a wildfire is an unwanted and unplanned wildland fire, and it includes the following categories:

• Unauthorized, human-caused wildland fires: Humans cause more than four out of every five wildfires — according to a NASA study, up to 84 percent of all wildfires are a result of human carelessness. Since the 1940s, wildlife experts have used campaigns like Smokey Bear to urge guests to be cautious in nature. A spark from a campfire, a cigarette tossed out a window or a stray firework could all lead to a wildfire under the right conditions. Sometimes, human-caused fires are set intentionally as an act of arson, but these are much rarer than accidental fires.

• Escaped prescribed wildland fires: Wildlife officers will sometimes schedule a prescribed burn for a certain area. Many prescribed fires, also called controlled burns, are set every year to rejuvenate land and return it to a thriving state — controlled burning has a long history of positively impacting wildland. However, if these prescribed burns escape control, they are considered a dangerous wildfire.

• Escaped naturally caused wildland fires: Naturally occurring wildfires can be caused by a variety of incidents, including lightning strikes and volcanic eruptions. Under the right conditions, hot winds or even direct sunlight can be enough to start a blaze. When natural wildfires occur on wildland, wildlife officers will often let it burn in a controlled, monitored manner. However, if it looks like it will threaten human habitation, federal firefighting teams will begin to put it out.

• Other wildland fires: Fires can begin for other reasons, and they are considered wildfires if they threaten human communities or the environment.

For a wildfire to occur, the conditions have to be just right. Droughts, heat waves and other cyclical climate changes can dramatically increase the chance of a wildfire — if a field or forest is dry due to a months-long drought, it will catch fire easily and spread quickly. Additionally, if high winds are present, the breeze can pick up sparks and spread the fire even faster.

A wildfire needs three conditions to burn — fuel, oxygen and a source of heat. Together, firefighters refer to these conditions as the fuel triangle. In the triangle, fuel refers to any flammable material close to a fire — brush, grass, trees, crops or buildings could all feed a wildfire. Generally, the greater an area's fuel supply, the more intense of a wildfire it can support.

Wildfires fall into three broad categories based on where they burn in an environment — surface, crown and ground fires.

• Surface fires: The most common type of wildfire, surface fires tend to move slowly and burn the forest floor, damaging and killing all low-lying vegetation.
• Crown fires: Crown fires are spread by wind and move quickly along the tops, or the crowns, of trees. These types of wildfires are especially damaging to woodlands.
• Ground fires: A lightning strike to grassland or a forest often starts ground fires. The lightning ignites underground coal, peat or root systems and spreads, often burning through to the surface and becoming surface fires.

Wildfires can begin anywhere. However, they are most common in forested or vegetated regions such as grasslands or scrublands. These areas receive enough moisture to support foliage growth, but they also experience extended dry, hot periods that leave plant material vulnerable to fire. Wildfires are especially common during summer, autumn and early winter months when fallen leaves and branches tend to dry out and become flammable.

The Environmental Effect of Wildfires

As earth temperatures rise and urban expansion extends into wooded or wild areas, we are more likely than ever to feel the impacts of wildfires. However, not every effect of a wildfire is negative — wildfires can create positive conditions as well.

1. The Positive Effects

For the environment, wildfires aren't always tragic — some ecosystems depend on regular fires for regeneration, reproduction and germination. A wildfire clears away brush and dead foliage, leaving behind new growing space and fresh, fertilized soil. Some species of pine trees only reproduce in the presence of extreme heat, and without wildfires, they would gradually go extinct.

For the environment, a wildfire can have the following positive effects:

• Clears away dead or overgrown foliage: Over time, a forest floor gets cluttered with shrub growth and the accumulation of dead trees and plants. Because so much space is taken up by undergrowth, new plants are unable to thrive in the ecosystem. A wildfire clears out any low-standing plant life, clearing the way for new, abundant growth. Many ecosystems rely on this periodic cleansing to remain healthy — fire acts as a kind of disinfectant, removing harmful insects and diseased plants from the ecosystem.
• Fertilizes soil: As a wildfire turns dead and decaying plant matter to ash, it releases nutrients into the soil. This is why so many wildflowers bloom after a wildfire has died out — the sudden influx of nutrients is conducive to new growth.
• Helps seeds germinate: Some species of plants and trees need wildfires to thrive — they can only successfully reproduce in the presence of intense heat. Some examples of fire-adapted plants include lodgepole pine, Jack pine, hickory pine, redberry and eucalyptus. When exposed to a fire, the seeds of these plants can open or germinate, spreading new life after a wildfire.
• Revitalizes the watershed: By cycling nutrients, replenishing stream-bank vegetation, increasing food sources for fish and dispersing fire-adapted plants, wildfires can revitalize watershed environments.

Although most people associate wildfires with danger or destruction, they are a vital part of the ecosystem and provide many benefits for natural environments.

2. The Negative Effects

But a wildfire can cause damage, as well. When a naturally occurring wildfire swells and reaches out-of-control proportions, it can threaten human property and communities

• Hurts air quality: A wildfire releases substantial levels of pollutants into the air, including vast quantities of smoke. This smoke consists of partly consumed fuel, ash particulates, invisible gases and liquid droplets. While brief exposure to smoke does not create long-term damage, high smoke concentrations can lead to health complications, especially for those with respiratory issues or illnesses. Some effects of prolonged smoke exposure include impaired judgment and alertness, the development of chronic illness and asthma triggers.
• Damages soil: Although a wildfire can release vital nutrients into the soil, it can also damage the delicate soil balance — by burning away the protective litter layer, the soil is vulnerable to erosion. The heat of intense wildfires can also change the soil composition, making it resistant to water and prone to aridity.
• Injures or kills plant life: No matter the type of fire, a wildfire harms plant life. While this is sometimes needed for the health of the ecosystem, a wildfire doesn't discriminate between plants — it destroys everything in its path, even if the plant was endangered, beneficial or ancient.
• Increases runoff: After a fire, the soil is often unable to absorb water for some time. Any rainfall or water becomes runoff, flooding lakes, streams and rivers with sediment and debris. Areas affected by wildfires are often vulnerable to flash flooding once the fire has been extinguished.

Wildfires carry both positive and negative effects for the environment, and every area is impacted differently depending on the location and intensity of the fire.

How To Stay Safe From a Wildfire

As a property manager or homeowner, you can take steps to reduce the potential of damage before a wildfire hits your property. One of the most important precautions is to limit any fuel sources around your business or home.

Clear away any combustible materials from within 30 feet of your buildings — these include dried leaves, pine needles, vines and dead or dry vegetation. Between 30 and 100 feet away from buildings, make sure your property has "fuel breaks" such as driveways, sidewalks or gravel pathways. Pavement or stones are a non-flammable surface, and they help to keep the fire from spilling onto your property.

If your area is in the path of a wildfire, the most important thing is not to panic. Today, firefighting responders use expert techniques and strategies to suppress a fire quickly. While first responders control the blaze, follow these steps to stay safe during a wildfire:

1. If you are advised to evacuate your home or location, leave as soon as possible.
2. Wear protective clothing and closed-toe shoes. Protect yourself from smoke and limit any time spent outdoors.
3. Lock doors, windows and any remaining vehicles.
4. Close all windows and doors to reduce heat and prevent drafts from entering your home, and make sure to shut off natural gas from its source.
5. Turn on all the lights on your property to help firefighters easily see it through dense smoke.
6. Tell someone that you have evacuated and where you are planning to go.
7. Choose a safe route of evacuation, far-removed from fire hazards. As you travel, check your local weather channel for information on the speed and direction of fire and smoke — if the fire appears to change direction and head towards you, choose an alternate route.
8. During the fire, stay informed about the status of the wildfire. Pay special attention to local weather forecasts, particularly any that could affect the fire conditions.

Don't return to your home prematurely — keep away from your property until officials declare that it is safe to access.

Post-Wildfire Protection Tips

Even after firefighters have put out a wildfire, your property could remain dangerous. Don't return to your home or business until officials declare it safe — even after a fire has been put out, small blazes can flare up unexpectedly.

Beyond small residual fires, the larger effects of a wildfire linger well after the flames are put out. A few of the post-wildfire dangers include:

• Road instability: Drive carefully in areas affected by wildfires — the intense heat can damage and weaken roads, making them more prone to surface erosion.
• Flash flooding: Keep an eye on your local weather forecast for flash flood warnings, and create a flooding emergency plan for you and your family.
• Structural damage: Most structures and buildings damaged by fire are unstable. Don't enter any building until emergency officials have examined it.
• Unstable trees and power poles: After a wildfire, use caution around power poles, trees and any other tall objects that could have lost stability from burn damage.
• Contaminated water systems: A wildfire often damages water lines and systems. Don't drink or use any water from the faucet until your water system has been cleared by emergency officials.

Before you begin any cleanup efforts, make sure to take pictures of the damage to your property to send to your insurance carrier.

Testing Air Quality After a Wildfire

In the wake of a wildfire, smoke, ash and toxins remain in the air. Even if the fire did not damage a building, cleaning efforts around the area disturb soot and ash, sending fresh clouds of particulate matter and gaseous chemicals into the air.

Additionally, once a fire begins to spread through an urban setting, the smoke becomes more hazardous to human health. Instead of just burning plant matter, the air is now filled with the synthetic and chemical compounds released as fire burned away manufactured objects and materials.

The effects of poor air quality vary from person to person, but common complications include:

• Asthma triggers
• Inflammation
• Acute irritation
• Immune system suppression
• Reduced lung capacity

Fortunately, there are measures you can take to determine what hazardous compounds, if any, are in your air. If you are concerned about the state of your air, consider testing your air quality. An air test could determine whether the following fire-related pollutants are present in your air:

• Smoke particles and residue
• Carbon monoxide
• Nitrogen dioxide
• Methane
• Acetic acid
• Formaldehyde
• Heavy metals

Testing your air quality after a wildfire helps you know what toxins are present in your home. Once you know the types and levels of contaminants in your air, you can begin accurate cleaning or filtration, quickly restoring your air to its previous condition.

Air Sampling Equipment to Use After a Wildfire

You can purchase a variety of air sampling equipment in the wake of a wildfire. The most common way to sample air quality is through an air sampling pump that is collecting airborne particulate onto a filter media. 

Sophisticated and reliable, air sampling pumps and media are an effective method of sampling air quality. When air sampling pumps are paired with the appropriate filter, they help technicians and industry experts analyze for a wide variety of hazardous compounds, including airborne particulates, metals and asbestos fibers. Pumps come in large area-scale models or smaller personal sizes for optimal personal exposure assessment. 

Another product that is widely used in the determination of wildfire origin is the Zefon Bio-Tape™. Taking a surface sample with the Zefon Bio-Tape™ provides a standardized sampling method and can be used to identify the origin of wildfire damage to a home. The sample lifted from the surface is analyzed for microbial, bioaerosol and inorganic dust contamination within the home. 

When it comes to air quality, don't leave anything to chance. Professionals from a range of industries choose Zefon International products to safely and quickly collect samples of air quality. 

At Zefon International, we take your health and safety seriously. We are industry-leading manufacturers and a long-standing partner with air quality experts, and we offer the highest quality products and customer service.

We are the professional choice for air sampling equipment — browse our products or contact us, and let us help you test your air quality today.